Hochschild viewpoint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hochschild viewpoint - Essay Example Every time an employee was lost, much money was lost in the training and recruitment of new ones. The company tried to deal with this issue by offering a variety of remedial that included the solution to balance in work and family for instance, part time and sharing of jobs. To her surprise many families preferred to work more than to be with their children and family members. Hochschild interviews like six families watching on how they operate during the day and night. She also interviews various levels of professional and is surprised by what she hears. The employees at Amerco concentrate so much at work that they forget the essentials. Hochschild as a female analyzed the enormous entry of women into the labor force. It looked fair and obvious that as women left their various homes every morning along men to their various jobs to build the economy and maintain their families as they returned from work should share the house chores which never happened. Instead, as they came from work women took to all home responsibilities. Hochschild referred to it as a double shift as women worked both at work and at home (Hochschild, Pp 15) Nevertheless, there is a superwoman who can multitask and perfect both at work and home. In the present most women are faced with the challenge of what was considered a full time works in the past generation. To make it worse, as cutting workers size has occurred, the hours of work have been added for everybody. Hochschild in her book tried to show the extent to which time is ever limited that they cannot fulfill their obligations both at home and work. Statistics show that women who have small children spend more time at work than the ones with no children. â€Å"Family values and reversed worlds† according to Hochschild tries to show how various family values have been invaded by work efficiencies and time pressures while places have turned out to be temporary homes for these

Concepts of Death in Medicine

Concepts of Death in Medicine Hufsa Ali The concept of death is one that has been shrouded with mystery and wonder for as long as humans have lived and died. The understanding and implications of death have varied greatly across eras and cultures. Historically, there has been little consistency in the understanding of the concept of the event of death, the moment at which one is dead. The Oxford English Dictionary defines death as â€Å"the end of life; the permanent cessation of the vital functions of a person [] or organism[2].† This definition, while precisely written, leaves considerable ambiguity about the diction of the definition itself. It is uncertain what is meant by â€Å"life† and â€Å"vital functions† of a person or organism. Further, one may question whether the vital functions of humans as persons differ from those of humans as organisms. Is death a process rather than an event? If so, when does it begin and end, and when is it appropriate to declare death? Is it possible that a human m ay experience two deaths, death of the person and death of the organism? If so, which death is relevant to medicine? In this paper, I will review the evolution of the definition of death in the Western world in the context of advancing medicine, and explore the implications in relation to organ donation. The philosophical examination of human death has concentrated two underlying questions: what is human death, and how can we determine that death has occurred?[3] The first question addresses the concept or definition of death, while the second concerns developing the corresponding standards: criteria and clinical protocol to be used to declare death. Examples of the answer to the first question include death as the functions of an organism or human death as the irreversible loss of personhood (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011[4]). Examples of answers to the second questions include the cardiopulmonary standard, the whole-brain standard, and the cerebral standard. It was not until the last century that seeking answers to these questions became the source of a painstakingly complex on-going debate about death, personhood and medicine. Prior to the advent of the stethoscope in the 19th century, cessation of breathing marked the occurrence of death (Daroff)[5]. Then, the loss of pulse became the characterizing event (Jennett, 2001). The Fourth Edition of Black’s Law Dictionary was published in 1951, reidentifying the occurrence of death as the â€Å"cessation of life, defined by physicians as a total stoppage of heart of the circulation of the blood†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [6][7] in the United States. The definition of death (particularly the distinction between death of the body and death of the person) was not relevant because the death of the brain and the rest of the body tissues occurred concurrently. Cardiopulmonary failure inevitably led to irreversible loss of all brain functions, and the irreversible loss of all brain functions quickly led to cardiopulmonary arrest. The issue of distinguishing between cardiopulmonary failure and brain function failure was not clinically relevant until the invention and widespread use of mechanical resuscitation and ventilation devices[8]. A stopped heart could now be restarted and blood could be oxygenated without functioning intercostal and pleural muscles, after the tissues of the brain had began ischemic necrosis[1]. Although they were still occurring, the functions of circulation and respiration were being performed by mechanical respirators and defibrillators. While this did not meet the criteria for death as defined in 1951, it is important to note that such patients would have met the criteria for death as soon as the use of life-support machines was discontinued. Essentially, this meant that either death could be reversed, or that death could be delayed well beyond the failure of vital organs. This also meant that a body with irreversible loss of brain functions could be indefinitely kept â€Å"alive.â €  This highlighted the distinction between neurological failure, and circulatory and respiratory failure. During the 1950’s, several physicians around the world began to recognize the futility of continuing treatment for patients who had lost all neurological functions. In 1954, a neurologist practicing in Massachusetts, Dr. Robert Schwab, noted this while examining a comatose brain hemorrhage patient who was on a respirator. â€Å"The question was, ‘Is this patient alive or dead?’ Without reflexes, without breathing and with total absence of evidence of an electroencephalogram, we considered the patient was dead in spite of the presence of an active heart maintaining circulation. The respirator was therefore turned off and the patient pronounced dead.† In 1959, four French neurologists came to the same conclusion. However, they some of them preferred the term coma dà ©passà ©, meaning â€Å"beyond coma† (Mollaret, 1959)[9]. This was the prognosis of certain death, they argued, but not did not meet the criteria for death itself. Schwab disagreed, stati ng that death of the the death of the nervous system would be death of the patient. In 1963, he proposed criteria to consider certain patients dead in spite of continuing cardiac function: loss of reflexes, a flat EEG, and apnea[10][2]. Over the next five years, he reported having treated 90 such patients. None of them survived and autopsies showed that every one of them had pervasive tissue necrosis in their brains. His findings went on to greatly influence the legal and medical redefining of death. Meanwhile, there were developing concerns about the futility of extensive, expensive medical care for patients whose deaths were imminent and inevitable. In 1957, Pope Pius XII proclaimed that physicians were not obliged to give â€Å"extraordinary† treatment in such cases[11]. In 1962, psychiatrist Frank Ayd published a paper in which he contended that there was a moral obligation to withdraw care when death was inevitable. In 1965, THe American Medical Association held it’s First National Congress on Medical Ethics and Professionalism to detail guidelines for end-of-life-care.[12] As the initiation of the transition from heart to brain criteria for death, the field of organ transplantation was developing. The first successful kidney transplant was performed between live twins in 1954 by Dr. Joseph Murray. Eight years later, Dr. Murray performed a kidney transplant from a cadaver donor. In the years following, liver, lung and heart transplants were performed, using organs from cadavers. Most of the recipients died soon after the surgery. There was the idea that â€Å"live donors† would improve the chances of survival, but physicians were weary about using vital organs from patients that were â€Å"alive† by cardiopulmonary criteria, even if they had lost total brain function. The ethical standard regarding organ retrieval is the Dead Donor Rule (DDR), which prohibits organ vital procurement from donors that have not yet been declared death. This limits possible sources of organs to cadavers that still have salvageable tissues and organs. As medica l technology prevented more and more â€Å"deaths† through advancements in life-support technology, it also accelerated the demand for organs of dead donors, as the capacity to perform successful transplants increased. This growing concern for organ transplantation sources, coupled with the futility of having â€Å"hopeless† patients on artificial ventilation and resuscitation created a climate that facilitated the major change that occurred at the end of the 1960s. In 1968, an Ad Hoc committee was formed at Harvard University to address the â€Å"ethical problems created by the hopelessly unconscious patient[13].† The committee developed criteria similar to the concept of â€Å"coma dà ©passà ©.† Patients who met the criteria[3] would be considered essentially dead, but not actually dead. The final report was titled â€Å"A Definition of Irreversible Coma: Definition of Brain Death.† While this report didn’t explicitly realign the definition of death to brain-based criteria, it outlined appropriate standard of care for comatose patients whose deaths were inevitable and imminent. It was never said outright, but they implied that the death of the brain is the death of the patient, and hinted that the cardiopulmonary criteria for death were obsolete[14]. On the same day as the publication of the Harvard report, the 22nd World Medical Association (WMA) met and announced the Declaration of Sydney. The declaration distinguished the gradual process of the death of cells and tissues from the death of the patient. â€Å"Clinical interest lies not in the state of preservation of isolated cells but in the fate of a person [] the point of death of the different cells and organs is not so important as the certainty that the process has become irreversible.† While it has been overshadowed in the United States by the Harvard report, the WMA’s declaration was the first major committee distinguishment between the death of the body and the death of the person. Throughout the 1970’s, widespread acceptance of the implied Harvard definition grew among the medical community. State legislatures and courts began legally recognizing some form of death based on brain-criterion, although there was little consistency among the criteria across jurisdictions. In 1971, Mohandas and Chou (neurologist and psychiatrist, respectively) published their â€Å"Minnesota Criteria,† based on autopsy discoveries that identified the destruction of the brain stem as the cause of brain death. Thus, the requirement for the EEG was eliminated[4]. Because both respiratory control and consciousness originated [15]in the brain stem, the loss of brainstem function equaled death of both persons and organisms. In the UK, the criteria for brain death was tweaked to exclude the EEG requirement, which meant a patient with detectable cortical activity would be dead in the UK and alive in most of the US. The President’s Commision for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research was formulated in 1979 to clarify brain death and other biomedical ethics issues. The committee published a report in 1981 that provided a clearer and more practical definition of death than the previous, conceptually ambiguous ones that had been used before. The commission reasoned that death occurred when the â€Å"body’s physiological system ceases to constitute an integrated whole[16].† Because the brain functions as the â€Å"great integrator and regulator,† the death of the organism occurs when the total brain functions are lost, and the organism disintegrates to a collection of it’s parts. As a result, the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) gave both brain-based and circulatory-respiratory-based criteria a â€Å"separate but equal† status in the eyes of law and clinical care. In the United States, death could now be det ermined by the â€Å"irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions† or â€Å"irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain.† While the UDDA recognized the whole brain standard as a means to determine death, it did not specify the neurological test criteria to be used. It also did not specify the amount of elapsed time required before stopped circulation can be considered irreversible. Different hospitals, providers, and associations used varying sets of tests to determine death. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) attempted to standardize the clinical protocol used to determine death using brain criteria. Tests to be performed were similar to the Harvard report criteria, without the EEG requirement and the 24-hour repeat was left unaddressed. While the UDDA and AAN’s guidelines have brought consistency to the clinical process of determining death, there has been widespread disagreement about the criteria of death itself. The traditional criteria for determining death, the cessation of heartbeat and breathing, have been updated by the UDDA. The circulatory-respiratory standard holds death as the irreversible cessation of circulatory-respiratory function. Leaving aside the implications of word â€Å"irreversible,† this definition may still not be entirely accurate nor practical. Rather than changing the reality of the nature of death, life-support devices and other technologies of modern medicine have shined a light on an aspect of the process of death that was not visible before. Before the possibility of mechanically and artificially continuing respiration and circulation, the failure of these processes were associated with the occurrence of death. However, after such â€Å"death† could be reversed and put off indefinitely, it became apparent that the onset of cardiopulmonary failure was not the moment of death, but simply indicative of death. As Bernat, Culver and Gert argue, heartbeat and regular breathing usually indicate life, but they do not constitute life (Bernat, Culver, and Gert 1981)[17]. â€Å"Life involves the integrated functioning of the whole organism.† Brain-based criteria better suited this understanding of life because the brain is responsible for much regulation of the entire organism. Thus, including brain-based criteria to declare death is seen as an â€Å"update† to the previous understanding of death, not a complete overhaul of it. The transition to brain-based criteria is nowhere near free of criticism. For some, one of the most obvious flaws in the logic behind the brain-based criteria for death was its basis on the idea that the brain is the sole organ responsible for integration of the organism as a whole. If death is defined as the irreversible loss of functioning of the organism as a whole, then only after the complete cessation of all whole-body integrating functions may a patient be considered dead. While the brain plays the biggest role in integrating interdependent functions of the body, somatic integration is a holistic phenomenon that involves organs and tissue systems throughout the body. Immune responses, regulation of blood glucose levels, and hematopoiesis are regulatory functions that can continue to occur without the entire brain (Shewomn, 2001)[18]. Therefore, if the definition of death is understood to be the end of the existence of the organism as an integrative whole, then the death of the whole brain does not necessarily mean the biological organism has died. Brain-based criteria may have been a step in the right direction, but perhaps for the wrong reasons. The significance and necessity of the brain may lie in another aspect of it’s function; one that cannot be attributed to any other part of the body: personhood. The brain is the origin of human thought, reasoning, consciousness, emotion, and self-awareness. If the entire brain is dead, than the human person is dead, even if the human organism continues to live. Another problem with the development of brain-based criteria is again unrelated to the concept itself, but how it came about as standard of care. The ethically dangerous notion that the climate of evolving medical innovation, particularly organ transplantation, had influenced and driven the acceptance of whole-brain death is a very concerning one. When the Harvard committee met to discuss brain death in 1968, they seemed to be concerned about two things: the futility of spending resources on patients with no chance of recovery, and the idea of wasting the organs of these patient’s bodies. Their main focus of concern seemed to not be the well-being of the patients at hand, but protecting the physicians who would withdraw care from patients that would previously have been considered alive. Without the redefinition of death, doctors would have been morally responsible for the death of such patients. Officially, the reason the Harvard committee cited for their efforts was to free up resources spent in vain on untreatable patients. Murray, who was on the committee specified that the primary concern was the dying patient, and that organ transplantation was â€Å"distinct and unrelated,† ()[19] However, many have been skeptical of this separation, arguing that the motive for changing the definition of death had everything to do with organ transplantation. Neurosurgeon Richard Nilges, calls attention to the fact that respiratory and other life-support technologies had been in use for nearly two decades before the hasty formulation of the Harvard committee, and no one had so loudly expressed the urge to end such care. Instead, he points out, that the Harvard committee met less than a year after the first successful heart transplant surgery.[5] Based on the heart-lung criteria of death at the time, the act of removing the heart from a â€Å"live† patient on life support w ould have been the cause of death of that patient. Nilges suggests that a second, underlying reason for changing the criterion of death was the underlying motivation behind the Harvard report: providing organs for transplantation. This situation was an ideal one for organ transplant advocates, because it was an â€Å"opportunity to tailor the definition of death to fit the moral acceptability of transplanting living hearts. Taking a beating heart from a body is not equivalent to taking innocent human life if ‘brain dead’ individuals are ‘defined’ as already dead.† Interestingly, Nilges is not against the idea of using brain-based criteria for death in organ donors. Rather, he disagrees with the way this criteria is practiced. His experience working with such patients and organ transplant teams has left him with disdain towards the practice of organ transplantation. In his paper titled â€Å"Organ Transplantation, Brain Death, and the Slipper Slope: A Neurosurgeon’s Perspective,† Nigles proposes a causal relationship between the changes in the understanding and practice of death declaration to the desires of the insatiable transplant advocates. He recalls trying protect his dying patients from transplant teams, who he compares to hungry vultures eyeing a small, dying animal. He criticizes the unofficial leeway allowed when diagnosing whole brain death, pointing out that over 20% of patients declared dead on brain-based criteria actually had brain activity detectable by an EEG. Save for the finale: [HANS JONAS: uncertainty about border b/w life, death[20]] [1] Necrosis, death of tissue, can be caused by ischemia, insufficient blood supply to those tissues. Brain tissue is among the body’s most sensitive to ischemic hypoxia, and is the earliest to die. It is possible for the rest of the body to regain function after a period of time without oxygen, but the brain to have lost it permanently. [2] Schwab’s criteria were: loss of reflexes (dilated and fixed pupils, no elicitable reflexes, and no independent movements), a flat EEG (electroencephalogram detecting no electrical activity in the brain), and apnea (inability to spontaneously breath). [3] Harvard report criteria included the following: (1) deep coma, no withdrawal from painful stimuli, (2) cranial and spinal arreflexia, (3) apnea, persistent after disconnected from ventilator for 3 minutes, (4) flat EEG, no detectable electrical brain activity, (5) exclusion of hypothermia or drugs, which may sometimes cause false-negatives in the above tests, and (6) evaluation repeated twice, 24-hours apart. [4] The brainstem is the pathway through which the brain (cerebrum and cerebellum) sends and receives signals to and from the rest of the body. If the brain stem is dead and all brainstem functions are lost, then the communication between the brain and spinal cord is severed. A body of a patient with a dead brain stem is functionally equivalent to that of a patient with whole brain death. Thus, any electrical activity in the cerebrum is not going to affect the outcome of tests of the rest of Harvard criteria. [5] The first successful heart transplantation was performed in December of 1967. The committee developed their criteria in August of 1968, a mere eight months after the heart transplant. [1]Write later [2]Cite oxford english dictionary [3]either cite Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Definition of Death [4]Written 2007, revised 2011. Review? [5]Fix citation [6]Cite this [7]Black Laws Dictionary, 1951. 4e [8]cite source: either de goergia, stanford, or daroff [9]#8, De Geogia [10]cite swchab, from de georgia, pg 674 [11]Citation needed [12]another someone talks about this conference, but says something more relevant. [13]cite: beecher. (From De Georgia, 674. bottom left. [14]cite this [15]use a different word. Plagiarism [16]cite this: de georgia, #48, 49. pg 676 [17]cite. (stanford encyclopedia, 1. mainstream view) [18]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11588655 [19]Murray, letter to Beecher, calling for committee formulation/meeting. De Georgia # 26, pg 675 [20]#40 De goergia, pg 676

The Bonesetter’s Daughter Essay -- English Literature:

Bones constitute on important part in The Bonesetter’s Daughter. What is the significance of the book’s title? â€Å"The Bonesetter’s Daughter† in my opinion holds a deeper meaning as a title. Amy Tan could have called the book â€Å"Precious Auntie† or â€Å"Liu Xing Gu† if you directly translate the bonesetter’s daughter. Why did Amy Tan choose this title? These three words must contain some deeper meaning and therefore we should not judge the title at face value. The first thing that we should look at is what these three words are signifying. They are putting emphasis on the bonesetter by saying that this book is about His daughter. Tan could have paraphrased the title into â€Å"The Daughter of the Bonesetter† This means that there must be some importance laid on this bonesetter. The term â€Å"daughter of the famous bonesetter† is only used a few times within the contents. Amy Tan wanted to accentuate two bits of information. One of those words is daughter. Since most of the book is mostly feminine based, it should, naturally, have a more feminine title. Before reading the book we are told that this story is about a girl or a woman and perhaps her father. However, we are not told about the bonesetter’s daughter until page 155. This is telling us something. We thought that the main character in this book had to be the bonesetter’s daughter. We now find out that this is perhaps not so and that it will be difficult to pin point the main character in this book. The main difficulty is within the fact that this book has no immediate plot. It is more of a mixture between psychological drama and the autobiography of a woman. Nobody can summarize the book effectively within one sentence. The story is far too intricate. This is exact... ...ere used as a way to speak to the gods and ask them questions whose answers could be read from the cracks which appeared on the rocks. Bones are a very important part of the Chinese culture and are used for a holy purpose. Naturally, this again links to the curse that this family is haunted by. If bones really hold that much power over people by being able to communicate with the gods, then if they are misused and disturbed like the way the Gu family did, they can therefore be able to curse them. The curse has grown in importance for LuLing ever since she has realized why it has followed them and what kind of disasters it may lead to. Precious Auntie is the key link between the bonesetter and LuLing and Ruth. She is also the one who suffered most from this curse. This is why she is such an important character. This is why she forms the title of this book.

The War of the Roses

The War of the Roses was a series of dynastic civil wars fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. Theses two houses fought for the English throne, and both thought it was theirs to take. The houses both claimed the throne due to the fact that they had decent through the sons of Edward Ill. So they both felt that they were deserving of the throne. This wasn't the first or the last time that these two houses fought each other, but this was by far their biggest encounter. One reason that these two started fghting was the aftermath of the Hundred Years War.The inancial and social troubles hit hard and they thought they could do better Job running things. People during this time started to panic and they all wanted a piece of the pie. Prior to the war, heirs to the throne started dying so the number of aristocrats started dropping slowly. Some people suggest that the English aristocracy was destroyed due to the War of the Roses, but I would argue differently. The fact that all these men were fghting over the throne does suggest that there were some deaths, but I don't believe that it was the cause of the removal of the English aristocracy.Before I make my argument on why I believe the aristocracy was not destroyed by the War of the roses, I want to give a brief outline of the war. The hostility rose after the death of Henry V and the infant Henry VI was in line to take over. Richard, Duke of York, challenged the right of Henry VI's crown because he wanted it for himself. He had descent through Edward Ill's surviving sons. There is evidence that shows how important the throne was to the people during this time and they were willing to do anything to try and get it. There was obviously some history behind the people who fought in the war and how the title of the war was amed.The Heraldic badges that associated themselves with the two houses, York and Lancaster, were roses. The House of York was a white rose and the House of Lancaster was a red rose . Early in the conflict, the York picked the white rose as their symbol, but the Lancaster rose was not introduced until after Henry Tudor won the battle of Bosworth. So the war was not called â€Å"War of the Roses† until years later after the war. During the war the participants wore badges to show which lord or patron that they were associated with. One example of this that I read was the white boar of Richard Ill worn by the Yorkist army.The houses were named after the cities York and Lancaster of course, but the houses didn't have much to do with the city it was named after. The House of Lancaster was established in 1399 by Henry of Bolingbroke. Henry of Bolingbroke was later crowned as Henry IV after he deposed his cousin Richard II. The next Lancaster king was Henry V and he died in 1422, but there was some hostility on who would take over the crown. When Henry V died he only had an infant son to take over. This is when Richard Ill challenged Henry VI's right to the cr own like I mentioned before.Richard Ill was a very powerful man and eld very important offices within the state. This was the first political disagreement between the two houses and the beginning ofa feud that would start a war. In 1453 Henry VI (by now he was old enough to take the throne) went into insanity. â€Å"Henrys condition was non-violent: as a result of depressive stuper he lost control of his limbs York, to take over as the protector of the realm. Henry recovered in 1455 and took over his duties, which forced York to take up arms of self-protection. The fighting started with the battle of St.Albans in 1455. â€Å"Their numbers were vaguely estimated t 3000 men, while the Duke of Norfolk and other friends were hastening to their aid; the Kings force was estimated at 2000 men. â€Å"2 Richard, Duke of York and the Earl of Warwick defeated the Lancastrians who was led by Edmund. Edmund was the Duke of Somerset, and he played an important role before the war for the Lanca strians. He was killed in this battle and Henry VI was captured which resulted in Richard being appointed Lord Protector. The queen, Margaret of Anjou, kept pushing the Lancastrians to challenge the York House.Things were pretty quite over the next few years, but it started heating back up in 1459. York and his followers were forced out of the country, but he would retaliate sooner than people thought he would. One of his strongest followers invaded England and captured Henry at the Battle of Northampton. The heavy rain played in the favor of the Earl of Warwick during this battle and capturing Henry was much easier than people think. This battle resulted in four years of truce between the two houses, but they still didn't like the other one.There wasn't any major conflict during this time, but it was still uneasy between them. The civil wars between the two houses continued in 1459. York returned to the country becoming the Protector of England, but was not able to take the throne. York moved north with his son Edmund, but the Lancastrian nobles surprised and killed both of them in the Battle of Wakefield. The Lancastrian army went south afterwards but was unsuccessful in the taking of London. York had an eldest son named Edward, Earl of March, who was later named King Edward IV.He was best known for winning the Battle of Towton. In Anthony Goodman's book he states, â€Å"At Towton Edward could muster probably fewer than half the peers that Henry could. â€Å"3 This goes to show ow big of a victory it was for Edward. He crushed the Lancastrian army in March 1461 by gathering the Yorkist armies resulting in a strong force that was too much to handle for the Lancaster's. It was the bloodiest battle of the war, which resulted in Henry, Margaret, and their son fleeing to Scotland. The next series of battles was over disputes within the Yorkists ranks.Warwick and his followers felt like they were a powerful group, and when they got looked over at Edward's court, it didn't make them very happy. Warwick didn't agree with a foreign policy that the king was putting n place and the tension grew greater. This resulted in another civil war in 1469, where Warwick and the Duke of Clarence instigated risings in the north. Then they defeated the kings supporters at Edgecote. There he held Edward prisoner, but nothing really came out of it. Edward had regained control by 1470 and made Warwick and Clarence fled to France. While in France, they allied themselves with Louis X'.Here is where things get a little tricky because they also allied themselves with their former enemy Margaret of Anjou. Working together, they went back to England in September of 1470. There, they forced Edward out of his throne and restored the crown to Henry VI. After being stripped of the crown, Edward fled out of England to the Netherlands with his supporters. There he got Burgundian aid and returned to England a year later. Edward outsmarted Warwick due to the fact that he kn ew the land, and talked Clarence into Joining his side. Then he easily defeated that Warwick was defeated and her and her son fled west to the safety of Wales.Edward anticipated that Margaret would do this and beat her there. She was captured as a prisoner, and her supporters were defeated. There her son was killed and Margaret didn't have much power or support after these series of events. Very soon after these events, Henry VI was murdered in the Tower of London. It is thought that Henry heard of the death of his son, and when Edward IV was re-crowned, he ordered Henrys death. Edward's throne was secure for the rest of his life and was never challenged or taken away. When Edward died in 1483, hostility begins again.Richard Ill took over the throne and he first moved to prevent the unpopular Woodville family of Edward's widow from participating in the government. Richard sed the suspicious Edward IVs marriage as pretext. To stop Richard, Henry Tudor (a distant relative of the Lanca strian king) was brought in and defeated him at Bosworth. He was then crowned Henry VI', and married Elizabeth of York to unite the two rival houses. Yorkist revolted and these were the last few battles of the war, but nothing really came out of it. These battles weren't very big or important; it was Just the fact that the Yorkist were upset that they were united.Many historians like to believe that the Wars of the Roses were the result of the English aristocracy being destroyed. After reading material on these wars and reading Kington Oliphant's article, I can't help but to think otherwise. According to Oliphant there are 27 historic houses. † There are about twenty-seven great historic houses that belong to the former division, if we adopt a fair test for the term â€Å"Historic House,† and excluede from it all those families which have not held an Earldom in the male line continuously for at least one hundred years, or thereabouts, before the Reformation. 4 The house s in the 13th century really started getting recognized, and this is the period that begins hostility between houses. This also is the period that you see a rapid decline in houses. † The Earls of Albermarle had died out so early as the Twelfth Century, and four great historic Earldoms dropped in the Thirteenth. The Century of Edward the Third swept away at least seven Norman Houses of the very first class; amoun which were those of Clare, Bigod, and Bohun,- names intertwined with the brightest achievements of our early history.In the first and more peaceful part of Henry the Sixth's reign, before Englishman had dreamt of civil war, the process of decay was Just as rapid. The last Mortimer, Earl of March, the rightful heir o the crown died a prisoner in 1424; the last Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, was struck down by a cannon ball at the siege of Orleans, not long before the appearance of the immortal Maid; the last Beauchamp, Duke of Warwick, passed away in 1445. â€Å"5 So w hat Oliphant is getting to is the fact that there were 12 houses that were already disappeared before the war even started.Well you might ask well there are still a number of houses to be counted for during the war so what is your point? Well from the start of the war (1455) to the end of the war (1487) there were a number of ouses that died that was unrelated to the war. Oliphant mentions the houses that died during the war but not because of the war. â€Å"Foremost in this category comes the name of Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of the realm, who died in 1475. To this we may add the less known names of Bromflete, Harington, Scales, and Sudeley. The Wars of the Roses had nothing to do with the extinction of these five houses in Roses.The Bonville, Tiptoft, Beaufort, Holland, and Lovell all died during the strife. Oliphant tells the story behind each of these names and how they died to end their ouse. The point that I want to make clear throughout this paper is the fact th at the number of houses that had died out before the Wars of the Roses, clearly outweigh the number of houses that have failed since the beginning of it. Well you might ask, Why did this happen? YouVe gave me numbers and the fact that the Wars of the Roses didn't cause the fail of the English aristocracy, but how did it happen.Oliphant does a great Job of comparing another countries aristocracy to England's. He uses old Scottish houses and what they did compared to what the old English houses did. Two causes have preserved the old Scottish houses from sharing the fate of their English brethren. The first was the prejudice in favour of heirs male, which would not allow the lands of a noble family to be split up among co-heiresses; the second cause was the practice of allotting small estates to younger sons, whereby the chance of always having an heir male at hand was much increased. 7 Showing the old Scottish houses and how they did things like this proves that there was a way to sav e the old English houses, but they failed to do so. Land was a big issue back then and it still is today. The Scottish houses knew that and knew they had to do something to preserve that land. They had to find a way to keep in the heir's family so it wouldn't eventually die out like most of the old English houses did. The next way the Scottish â€Å"preserved† their houses was the practice of allotting small estates to younger sons.The probability of always having a male take over the heir was a lot higher than if they didn't do this. These are Just some ways that the Scottish houses did to ensure that they didn't run into the same mistake that the English did. To me the English houses didn't invest in themselves very much. They didn't have a back up plan in case something happen to them and they died out. Historians studying this era tend to think that the Wars of the Roses wiped out these houses so they weren't really thinking about investing in themselves.Oliphant proves t hat most of these houses were already died out ten years prior to the war so that assumption is inaccurate. There was a lack of effort in making sure that the houses never died out, but there shouldn't be any excuse for it. They should be prepared for the freak accidents or the natural causes that may come their way for the sake of the house. I believe that it was a little about pride, and the old Scottish aristocracy had that. They were proud of their houses and they wanted to keep it going.The English were to caught up in other things to think about, what happens to the house if something happens to me? What I wanted to get out of this paper was to know more about the War of the Roses and to dig deeper inside the war. I wanted to find something worth arguing about and giving evidence on my point of view. I found out that the English houses started to die out and historians had suggestions for why this was happening. Some had the ame mindset I had, and others thought it was because of the war.I believe that the war had an effect on some of the houses during time, but it didn't have the extinction effect that people said it did. The Wars of the Roses was a great time period and had a lot of conflict that went with it. I'm positive that the conflict did have a little effect on the old English aristocracy dying out, but to say the war was the reason why it was destroyed makes no sense at all. In my opinion it was irresponsible of the men to not something special like the Scottish did, and who knows what the English could have been today. The War of the Roses British Studies THE WAR OF THE ROSES †¢ Introduction †¢ Name of The War of the Roses †¢ Famous people in The War of the Roses †¢ Causes of The War of the Roses †¢ The War of the Roses †¢ The result and impact of The War of the Roses †¢ The summary †¢ Bibliography I. INTRODUCTION T he Middle Age considers one of the most exciting periods in English history. One of the most historical events of medieval era is the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth century. The Hundred Years’ War , in which England lost practically all its lands in France, ended in 1453, but there was no peace in the country.The feudal struggle had broken out and the atmosphere in this country was instable and uncertain leading to the civil war in the fifteenth century. The War of the Roses was a series of dynastic civil war for the throne of England between supporters of two rival branches of the royal house Plantagenet: the house of Lancaster (whose badge was red rose) a nd York (whose badge was white house) from 1455-1485. These thirty years of warfare was even more destructive to England the Hundred years’ War that had been in the previous century. Most of the fighting in the Hundred Years’ War took place in France, which meant most of the military damage affected in French peasantry rather than the English. In the War of the Roses, most of the fighting occurred in England, and thus the loss of the life and property was much greater for England citizens). Why was the called The War of the Roses? Why did the War of the Roses happen? How it happened? And what was the result? There are many interesting things about this famous war. Let’ discover together. II. THE NAME OF THE WAR OF THE ROSES: ? It is really an exciting name. Why was called the war of the roses?This name was given to the Wars by Tudor historians. The name â€Å"Wars of the Roses† refers to the Heraldic badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. [pic] ? However, it is not thought to have been used during the time of the wars. – The White Rose was one of the many emblems which were used by King Edward IV as a symbol of his father's right to some lands and a castle in the North. Generally he preferred to use the emblem of the sun and its rays, a reference to the three suns which appeared at the dawn of the day of the battle of Mortimer's Cross 1461.The White Rose only later became accepted as the symbol of the House of York, particularly when Elizabeth of York married King Henry VII, but before then other emblems were in general use by the Yorkists. – The Red Rose was the emblem of the House of Tudor, and the Tudors only played a substantial part in the Wars during their final stages. The king Henry Tudor united the two roses to create the Tudor ‘rose which contain both white rose and red rose after marrying Elizabeth of the York. > That‘s why the war betwe en them got the name the War of the Roses. III. FAMOUS PEOPLE RELATING TO THE WAR OF THE ROSES During the war of the Roses, there are kings or Dukes who contributed main roles in the war. Let’ begin our discovery with the first king of the house Lancaster. †¢ THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER 1. THE KING HENRY IV Reign: 30 September 1399 – 20 March 1413 Coronation: 13 October 1399 Predecessor: Richard II Successor: Henry V Henry IV was King of England and Lord of Ireland (1399–1413). He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet. He became the first King of England from the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenet, one of the two family branches that were belligerents in the War of the Roses. 2. THE KING HENRY VReign: 20 March 1413 – 31 August 1422 Coronation: 9 April 1413 Predecessor: Henry IV Successor: Henry VI Henry V was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 35 in 1422. He was the second English monarch who came from the House o f Lancaster. After military experience fighting various lords who rebelled against his father, Henry IV, Henry came into political conflict with the increasingly ill king. After his father's death, Henry rapidly assumed control of the country and embarked on war with France. Henry IV was a very brilliant king. 3. THE KING HENRY VI Reign :31 August 1422 – 4 March 1461Coronation: 6 November 1429 Predecessor: Henry V Successor: Edward IV Henry VI (1421 – 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. His periods of insanity and his inherent benevolence eventually required his wife, Margaret of Anjou, to assume control of his kingdom, which contributed to his own downfall, the collapse of the House of Lancaster, and the rise of the House of York. 4. THE KING HENRY VII (HENRY TUDOR) Reign: 22 August 1485 – 21 April 1509 Coronation: 30 October 1485 Predecessor: Richard III Successor: Henry VIIIHe nry VII (Welsh: Harri Tudur;1457 – 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henry won the throne when he defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Fiel. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the political upheavals of the Wars of the Roses. He founded a long-lasting dynasty and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII, after a reign of nearly 24 years. THE HOUSE OF THE YORK: I. THE KING EDWARD IV Reign: 4 March 1461  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 3 October 1470 Coronation: 28 June 1461 Predecessor: Henry VI Successor :Henry VI Edward IV (1442  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England. The first half of his rule was ma rred by the violence associated with the Wars of the Roses, but he overcame the Lancastrian challenge to this throne at Tewkesbury in 1471 to reign in peace until his sudden death. 5. THE KING RICHARD III Reign 26 June 1483 – 22 August 1485 Coronation 6 July 1483Predecessor Edward V Successor Henry VII Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. III. CAUSES OF THE WAR OF THE ROSES ? There are three main causes leading to the War of the Roses. ? The first reason is the political crisis (dynastic problems) – In 1215, the Norman barons were united with the Saxon nobles and the growing bourgeoisie of the big towns and they took park in the governing in the country.During the Hundred years’ war, they built castles with high walls and kept private armies of thousands of men . Realizing the danger with big barons represented to the crown, Edward III tried to marry his sons to their daughters, and the heiresses of the House but this not help to strengthen the position of the House Plantagenet. Then, Henry Bolingbroke seized the crown and became the first king of the Lancaster dynasty, Henry IV (1399- 1413). ; It marked the end of the line of the Plantagenet monarchy and the beginning of the Tudor reign; the end of Medieval England and the beginning of the country’s Renaissance. However, Henry IV‘s reign was not an easy one. Having taking the throne by force, he had made many enemies, especially those whose legitimate claim to the throne he had ignored. Henry ‘s oldest son ( who would became Henry V ) was a brilliant and courageous warrior and was responsible, on many occasion, for putting down major rebellions against his father–rebellions that came from the other side of the family who wanted the throne. Beginning in 1405, Henr y IV suffered from a recurring illness that finally took his life in 1413. – Henry V (1387-1422) would go on to secure English-held lands in France and trengthen the bond between the two countries by winning the right to the French, as well as to the English, Crown. Henry V died at a young age in battle in France, leaving a nine-month-old son–King Henry VI. While Henry V was busy fighting wars in France and accumulating wealth for his country, the feudal between the York and Lancaster Houses was subdued. Only one rebellion occurred, and the leader of that rebellion was tried for treason and killed. – However, with Henry V's death–and only a baby for king, and Henry V's wife, who was not only young but of French blood–members of both Houses began maneuvering again for power. Henry VI was a weak man, surrounded by poorly managed counselors. Not only did Henry suffer from mental illnesses, he lost most of the land that his father had won in France. Al though Henry VI technically was king of France, he lost all authority in that country. Many English nobles, each with his own powerful army, grew discontent with Henry VI's rule. The interests of the House of the Lancaster supported by the big barons collided with the interests of the lesser barons and merchants of the towns, who support the House of the York. As a result, the feudal struggle grew into an open war between the Lancastrians and the Yorkist.William Shakespeare offers one poetic endorsement of this view: â€Å"My Lord of Hereford [Henry IV] here, whom you call king, Is a foul traitor to proud Hereford's king[Richard II]: And if you crown him, let me prophesy: The blood of English shall manure the ground, And future ages groan for this foul act; Peace shall go sleep with Turks and infidels, And in this seat of peace tumultuous wars Shall kin with kin and kind with kind confound; Disorder, horror, fear and mutiny Shall here inhabit, and this land be call'd The field of G olgotha and dead men's skulls. O, if you raise this house against this house, It will the woefullest division proveThat ever fell upon this cursed earth. † ? The second reason, in my opinion, is financial problems and societal changes. – The fifteenth century had many changes in society that seriously affected to the war of the roses. The issues increased from the beginning of Henry VI's reign in 1422 with the corruption, public disorder, riots and the maladministration of justice.. After the leadership of King Henry V, â€Å"The Flower of Chivalry† and the â€Å"Mirror of all Christian Kings,† the weak and placid Henry VI was a great disappointment. >We can see that it was a bad government, militarily ineffective and financially irresponsible.His fool and weakness in governing directed his country down the bloody road of civil war. The king loaded his ministers and friends with gifts and pensions. Many people who were owed money at the Exchequer, such as military commanders, could not collect on their debts because there was not enough money to go around. People lost faith in the courts and turned to threats and violence to gain victory in their disputes. The result is a social climate approaching gangsterism. The social violence before and during the Wars of the Roses is often blamed on a phenomenon known as â€Å"bastard feudalism. † ?Finally, I consider the hundred year’ war affecting to the war of the roses, too. – The Wars of the Roses began soon after the Hundred Years War ended. The suggestion that nobles were trying to retrieve fortunes lost in the withdrawal from France does not agree with the evidence. Few major families lost much by the English defeat – most of the major magnates were growing wealthier. – However, the end of the Hundred Years war did remove one reason for unity within England: foreign war tends to unite people at home. The end of the War also left many unemployed soldier s – a destabilizing group in society.Medieval knights and nobles were a military caste, and it was as easy for them to engage in domestic as foreign warfare. IV. THE WAR OF THE ROSE T he war of the roses, which lasted for thirty years (1455-1485), turned into a bitter struggle for the Crown, in which each party murdered every likely heir to the throne of the opposite party. It was a dark time for England, when the Kings and nobles were busy fighting and murdering each other and no time to take care of the common people, who suffered greatly. ? The opening battle of the Wars took place at St Albans in 1455. Richard of York leads a force of about 3,000 on a march toward London.Henry VI moves from London to intercept the Yorkist army. Henry halts his march in the town of Saint Albans and waits. Richard attacks and defeats Henry inflicting about 300 casualties. The Queen and her young son Edward flee into exile. The Yorkist faction also kills the Lancastrian ally Somerset, the pr imary supporter of Henry VI. ? After that, the queen rebelled at these actions, gathered an army around her, and positioned herself outside of York. When the duke learned of this, he went after her, although the queen's troops were double the size of the duke's. The duke's army was easily defeated.In 1459 Richard was killed at the Battle of Wakefield. ? In 1461, the Battle of Towson, one of the bloodiest battles ever fought on English soil at the time, was fought with an estimated 25,000 people dying. Edward's army greatly defeated the queen's army, forcing the queen and king, with their son, to flee to Scotland. That same year, Edward was officially crowned king of England, becoming Edward IV. ? Edward enjoy a few years of peace, but when he married Elizabeth Woodville in secret, he embarrassed Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, who was working to arrange a marriage for Edward with the French king.Edward also disallowed his brothers, Richard and George, to marry Neville's daughters. In 1469, Neville and George fought against Edward. They won a decisive battle, held Edward hostage, killed Edward's father-in-law, and forced Edward to have parliament recognize Edward as an illegitimate king and to give the crown to George. Edward's younger brother, Richard, rescued the king, and Neville and George had to flee to France. ? In France, it was King Louis XI who suggested the alliance of Queen Margaret and Neville. The two agreed, Neville promised his daughter as wife to the queen's son, and returned to England with a powerful army.Edward was defeated and had to flee to Holland and then to Burgundy. Edward, supported by the king of Burgundy, returned to England. Shortly after Neville had paraded Henry VI all over London as the restored king, he was defeated by Edward's new army in 1471. Henry as well as his son were then killed, strengthening Edward's claim to the throne. ? Edward died young, in 1483, leaving his twelve-year-old son heir to the throne. Edward V's reig n lasted only a couple of months. Richard, the uncle to the young king, claimed that his brother (Edward IV) had married Elizabeth illegally and therefore his heirs could not be crowned king.Parliament agreed, and crowned King Richard III in 1483. Edward V was placed in the Tower of London, along with his younger brother, and was never again seen. ? Two years later, in 1485, Richard would meet his death in a battle against Henry Tudor of the House of Lancaster; he would become King Henry VII. Henry married Elizabeth of York, the strongest claimant for the throne from the York house, thus securing his position and ending the long Wars of the Roses. [pic]The map of the battles in the War of the Roses (1455-1485) V. THE RESULT AND EFFECTS OF THE WAR OF THE ROSES Historians still debate the true extent of the conflict's impact on medieval English life, and some revisionists suggest that it leaded to many profound changes in England. The most obvious impact is the collapse of the Plantag enet and the raise of the Tudor dynasty. ; Moreover, with their heavy casualties among the nobility, the wars are thought to have continued the changes in feudal English society caused by the effects of the Black Death, including a weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and a corresponding strengthening of the merchant classes, and the growth of a strong, centralized monarchy under the Tudors.It marked the end of the medieval period in England and the movement towards the Renaissance. VI. SUMMARY ? In my opinion, Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting and bloodthirsty periods in English and European History with two important events. They are the Hundred Years’ War and The War of the Roses which seriously affected to the society, politics, economy and other aspect of England at that time especially the War of the Roses. It marked the end of the line of the Plantagenet monarchy and the beginning of the Tudor reign (118 years) and even the end of Medieval England a nd the beginning of the country’s Renaissance.It was really an exciting period. I hope that some information above will be useful for all of you during this course and later. VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY ? The War of the Rose Evans, HT (introduction by Ralph A Griffiths) – Sutton Publishing 1998 ? The Wars of the Roses Gillingham, John – Weidenfeld ; Nicholson 2001 ? The Wars of the Roses Griffiths, Ralph A – Sutton Publishing 1998 ? Lancaster ; York Ramsay, JH – Oxford University Press 1892 QUESTION: 1. Which is considered the first main battle in the war of the roses? a. The battle of St. Albans b. The battle of Barnet c. The battle of Tadcaster d. The battle of Blore Heath 2. enry IV had a famous wife , depends on your point of view, who was this powerful women. a. Margaret of Anjou b. Mary de Guise c. Eleanor of Aquitaine d. Matida of Flanders 3. Richard duke of York was killed at which major battle? a. battle of Doncaster b. Battle of Wakefield c. Battle of Tacaster d. Battle of Sedgemoor 4. how long did the War of the Roses last? a. 10 years b. 30 years c. 50 years d. 100 years 5. this battle is widely thought to have the bloodiest ever fought on England soid. It marked a major Yorkist victory in 1461. which of these is it? a. battle of Hexbam b. Battle of Towton c. Battle of the Tadcaster d.Battle of the Hedgley Moor 6. what color rose was used to represent Lancastrians? a. white b. red c. blue d. black 7. In which century did the wars of the Roses take place ? a. 14th century b. 15th century c. 16th century d. 17th century 8. which foreign power sided with Edward IV during the wars a. Italy b. Spain c. France d. Bungery 9. which of these people was on the Lancastrians side during the war of the Roses? a. Thomas Cromwell b. Margaret of Anjou c. Richard Neville the king maker d. Richard Duke of York 10. Who was the first king of House of Lancaster? a. Richard Duke b. Henry Bolingbroke c. Henry Tudor d. Edward II END [pic][pic]

Debate About Same-Sex Marriage Essay

One of America’s most debated issues today is the Same-Sex Marriage. In fact, gay marriage has been legalized in nine States in America. Having to be a part of the Christian community, we truly disagree to this for it is a sin as we consider it and we do not have to think twice in contradicting this topic. However, it doesn’t hurt to talk a little about this. Same-sex marriage will be legalized is most countries some day. The inevitable are being postponed by the generations who precede us and govern our lands. A lot of young people do not even realize the enormity of it all. We heard a lot of people say that they accept homosexuality, but that they don’t think that the whole â€Å"marriage† thing is important.. Well, it obviously is. Because when marriage happens, the things on a personal level are not just the ones affected. One’s finance, future, status, insurance, contract, and so many more will also be affected. If the government does not recognize your same-sex partner as your husband/wife, a lot of complicated situations, in terms of paperwork and justice, will arise. And that’s why we think it needs to be legalized. ‘’Jesus never said a word about homosexuality. In all of his teachings about multiple things – he never said that gay people should be condemned. I personally think it is very fine for gay people to be married in civil ceremonies.’’ – Jimmy Carter. Love has no boundaries, they say. But when referring to love, does that mean the affection between a man and a woman or the affection between two individuals, regardless the sexuality? Personally, we think, the word ‘sexuality’ from the phrase ‘regardless the sexuality’ can be referred as a boundary from the quote ‘’Love has no boundaries,’â⠂¬â„¢ — which should not be a hindrance in finding true love. Picture an x-ray photograph of two skeletons showing affection by kissing. The moment you look at it, you are slowly being baffled by the curiosity if it is a girl and a boy, a boy and a boy, a girl and a girl, or even a black man and a white woman. Just the simplicity of the connection and the beauty of the two human beings sharing love is all that should matter. Love prevails beneath all that skin. However, the institution of marriage has traditionally been defined as between a man and a woman. It is believed that marriage is the union of man and woman, uniquely involving the procreation and rearing of children within a family. Legalizing same-sex marriage would weaken the respect for the real definition of marriage. The legality of marriage has been encountering a few inconsistencies – having multiple wives; being okay of marrying your own relatives; the latest argument, same-sex marriage; and maybe in the near future, the legalization of marrying an animal. If same-sex marriage is to be approved, it will only start a chain reaction which will eventually ruin the essence of marriage. Another disadvantage would be carried on as a burden and embarrassment by their child, and an insult bullies can use against them. That is, if ever a gay family plans on adopting their own child. The child will have so many questions – why he has two fathers or maybe why he has two mothers, why he does not have a normal family. No matter how thorough and understandable their explanation is, if the child sees a normal family composes: a mother, a father, and a child, and he/she is aware that only a man and a woman can bear children, then curiosity and confusion will just hit their child harder. Being part of the Christian community, we believe that marriage is for men and women and friendship is for two individuals of the same sexuality. Yes, loving the same gender does not hurt anyone, but it just does not appeal to the culture we have learned and have been taught. God has created woman for man, and man for woman. Abiding to His rule is an act of sinfulness. Marriage is of the seven sacraments Catholic Church. It is not something a person can just plan the day before and do the day after. It is well thought and prepared for. For this is a commitment not only to your partner but also to God. Basically, we approve of gay relationships but not gay marriage.

3 Examples of Incorrect Use of Semicolons

3 Examples of Incorrect Use of Semicolons 3 Examples of Incorrect Use of Semicolons 3 Examples of Incorrect Use of Semicolons By Mark Nichol In each of the following sentences, semicolons are incorrectly employed. Discussion following each example explains why the use of one or more semicolons is an error, and revisions demonstrate proper punctuation. 1. The lack of specificity allows flexibility; but the lack of clarity also makes certification less certain. This sentence consists of two independent clauses. Two strategies for dividing a pair of such clauses are separating them with a semicolon and separating them with a conjunction. This sentence redundantly applies both methods, so employ one or the other (preferably, the simpler solution of signaling the transition with a conjunction): â€Å"The lack of specificity allows flexibility, but the lack of clarity also makes certification less certain.† (But if one uses a conjunctive adverb such as however or nonetheless in place of the conjunction, a comma must follow that word, and a semicolon should precede it: â€Å"The lack of specificity allows flexibility; however, the lack of clarity also makes certification less certain.†) 2. The film’s inane plotting; randomly gratuitous violence; utter sexlessness; and questionable grasp of grown-up behavior suggest that the true author might have been an eight-year-old boy. Semicolons can serve as supercommas, dividing a series of equivalent sentence elements such as items in a list when at least of one of them is already divided by commas, necessitating a more robust punctuation mark to delineate the larger divisions from the smaller ones. This sentence errs in two ways. First, the lack of subdivisions means that semicolons need not supplant commas. Second, using semicolons implies that the phrase beginning with suggest applies only to the final characteristic in question. For those reasons, use only commas: â€Å"The film’s inane plotting, randomly gratuitous violence, utter sexlessness, and questionable grasp of grown-up behavior suggest that the true author might have been an eight-year-old boy.† 3. The subcontractors were fined for allegedly failing to ensure that the formwork and shoring were designed to safely withstand all intended loads; failing to have calculations and drawings approved by a civil engineer; and failing to ensure the shoring supports were erected on a stable base. Even when a list consists of a series of extended phrases rather than several sets of just a few words each, mere commas suffice to separate the elements if they do not themselves include punctuation: â€Å"The subcontractors were fined for allegedly failing to ensure that the formwork and shoring were designed to safely withstand all intended loads, failing to have calculations and drawings approved by a civil engineer, and failing to ensure the shoring supports were erected on a stable base.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Religious Terms You Should KnowHyper and HypoUses of the Past Participle

Full Review Stanford Online High School

Full Review Stanford Online High School SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you're reading this article, you've probably heard of Stanford Online High School, but you may not know that much about it. In this guide, you'll find information on what Stanford Online High School is, who it's meant for, and some of the pros and cons of attending. What Is Stanford Online High School? Stanford Online High School, or Stanford OHS (formerly Education Program for Gifted Youth Online High School at Stanford University, or EPGY OHS) is an accredited, independent school for students seventh through twelfth grade, founded by Stanford University. As its previous name suggests, its target audience is gifted youth- those who excel far beyond what their local schools can offer. The curriculum is extremely rigorous in keeping with that mission: the school offers a high number of accelerated, AP, and university-level courses. There are approximately 650 students, 44% of whom attend full-time.The intention is that students will attend at least four years, though there are exceptions to the rule. The price tag is nothing to scoff at: $19,950 for full-time enrollment. The teaching is, by all accounts, top-notch: over two-thirds of Stanford OHS teachers have doctoral degrees, and many of them formerly taught as university professors. Classes are available to students around the globe and are conducted online, in a virtual classroom, in real time. It's a little like a group Skype session, only with more features (like electronically raising hands). You can see and hear the teacher, and you turn your own mic and video on when it's your turn to address the class. You can also message the other students in the classroom as you go. Stanford OHS offers academic advising, counseling, and college counseling to its students. There's also a number of other features presented either online or in-person. Certain academic clubs and extracurricular activities are conducted over the web, like the Ethics Bowl and the Tolkien C.S. Lewis Club. Students are also encouraged to make use of the activities offered locally to them, ranging from club sports to in-person meet-upswith otherstudents attending Stanford OHS. There's even an optional two-week, in-person session at the campus of Stanford over the summer. Students may, as I mentioned before, take classes at Stanford OHS full-time, or they can take classes part-time or on a single-course basis. In this article, we're mostly going to look at full-time students who expect to graduate with a Stanford OHS diploma. And "full-time" here meansvery full-time. More on that below. Who Is Stanford Online High School For? According to the Stanford OHS website, the school seeks "intellectually curious and motivated students with a record of achievement inside and outside the classroom." That's all well and good, but it's pretty vague- let's take a look at what that means in a practical sense. To accept or reject an applicant, Stanford OHS looks at a student's transcript, test results, teacher recommendations, work samples, and personal essays, as well as parent questionnaires. In other words, it's almost like a college application, and the school is looking for the same qualities that colleges are: the desire, motivation, and skills necessary to excel in advanced academics while also maintainingwell-balanced personal development. That being said, that acceptance rate was 70% as recently as 20, according to the New York Times' website- perhaps the result of the schoolnot yet being very well known. Stanford OHS's excellent track record is a testament to the caliber of students it attracts. That excellent track record involves a 2175 mean SAT score and a 32.5 mean ACT score for the class of 2015 (a mere 49 students). Not to mention, 89% of students who took AP courses passedthose courses with a 4 or 5. In other words, Stanford OHS caters to students who are willing and ready to put in the work it take to see results. Students attend Stanford OHS for a variety of reasons. For some, their living situation makes it difficult or impossible to attend a brick-and-mortar high school (one student on the website mentioned living in a houseboat in the middle of the ocean). Others have alocal high school that is not a good fit- perhaps they experience bullying or other social problems. For many, it's a matter of seeking the extreme rigor that Stanford OHS provides. For students whowant a real challenge, Stanford OHS may be the answer. What's It Like to Attend Stanford Online High School? Every student at Stanford OHS adheres to a slightly different schedule. Classes are seminar-style, with groups of roughly 15 students meeting twice a week for 75 minutes. There are a few exceptions to this rule; languages, for instance, meet three times a week. Courses are offered anywhere from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. Pacific time, and there's no class on Fridays. The gist of the number of hours of academic work required of students is relatively stable. High school students take, on average, five classes, each requiring eight to ten hours of time a week between attending class, watching recorded lectures, and doing several hours of reading and writing assignments. The average student is expected to put in 40-50 hours of work a week. There are also things like assemblies and homeroom to attend, though these do not add significantly to the workload. All classes are conducted online, as mentioned earlier, and students need to find approved proctors to oversee their testing in person. Some students report that this online experience makes it difficult to get time to chat with classmates outside of school activities, though the hope is that students will get more deeply involved in their own communities to resolve this social deficit. Who has time for forming human friendships when you're doing 50 hours of schoolwork a week? Pros of Stanford OHS Stanford OHS, by all accounts, does an excellent job of preparing already-stellar students for college. Remember the test results I quote earlier? They're not a fluke. Classes are designed to recreate college as nearly as possible, and they cover some very advanced topics. The school is flexible for those who live around the globe or who are farfrom a school with rigorous academic options. If you're living in the middle of the woods, that's fine, as long as you have internet access. The school provides a platform for high-performing students to gather and feed off each other's skills and inspiration. "By far one of the most important aspects of OHS," says an anonymous reviewer on quora.com, "is- other OHSers! If you're the smartest one in the room, you need tofind another room. OHS is an awesome answer to that call..." The school is well-loved by attendees, earning ratings of 4.9 out of 5 on multipleschool-rating websites for parents and students. Cons of Stanford OHS At $19,950 a year, full-time tuition is prohibitive for many students. At $4,150 a year, even single-course tuition can be out of reach. (About 15% of students do receive financial aid.) Additionally, despite the school's best efforts to make sure students get appropriate social interaction, this doesn't change the fact that students are dedicating roughly50 hours a week to school and only ever interacting with classmates online. The same anonymous reviewer quoted above says, "My impression is that useful and deep social interaction at OHS is pretty difficult for many (maybe most) students," and, "My impression is that not enough OHSers (me included, last year) get outside or exercise or interact socially..." Also, Stanford OHS is currently a school with low visibility and low recognition. One student expressed that many college admission officers were skeptical at first, though it also turns out that this point was a good conversation-starter. Finally, courses are extremely rigorous which can add a lot to a student's stress level. In many ways, attending Stanford OHS islike starting college early.That's a great way to be prepared, but you also lose the days of your high school experience, and that only comes around once. Is Stanford Online High School Right for You? Stanford OHS is a great option if you are unable to attend a brick-and-mortar high school for reasons ranging from your living arrangements to the difficulty of navigating the peculiar social world of your local school. It can also be agreat optionif you want anunusually rigorous experience to prepare you for the demands of college. If IB and AP don't sound like enough, Stanford OHS may be the way to go. That being said, you need to have a good session of soul-searching before you apply to Stanford OHS. Ask yourself some tough questions.First, can you afford the high tuition costs? Are you going to become socially isolated without daily in-person interaction with classmates? Are you, quite honestly, disciplined enough to deal with the relative flexibility of a Stanford OHS schedule and the lack of constant supervision? Are you earnestly excited by the prospect of Stanford OHS, despite the cons discussed above? Really think about your answers before you begin the process of applying. Stanford OHS is a great path to learning, but it's not the only one. Find what's right for you. Conclusion Stanford OHS is a rigorous independent school with a number of great features. By all accounts, it does an excellent job of preparing outstanding students for topuniversities around the world. That being said, there are some downsides, including the cost, the possibility of social isolation, and the stress of taking on so much so soon. Stanford OHS is an excellent option for students who are fully committed to getting everything possible from their academic careers (and who have already proventhemselves to be academically gifted). It's less ideal for students who enjoy the full experience of socializing with classmates in the halls, playing school sports, and enjoyinga few last years at a relatively slower pace before the pressures of adulthood take full hold. What's Next? If you're pondering whether online high school is the right option for you, read our article on that very topic. If you're going for an IB education, you may also want to read about the possibility of taking IB classes online. On the other hand, if you're going the AP route, we've got information on taking AP classes online. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Margaret Pole, Tudor Matriarch and Martyr

Margaret Pole, Tudor Matriarch and Martyr Margaret Pole Facts Known for:  Her family connections to wealth and power, which at some times of her life meant she wielded wealth and power, and at other times meant she was subject to great risks during great controversies.   She held a noble title in her own right, and controlled great wealth, after she was restored to favor during the reign of Henry VIII but she became embroiled in the religious controversy over his split with Rome and was executed on Henry’s orders. She was beatified by the Roman Catholic Church in 1886 as a martyr.Occupation:  Lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, manager of her estates as Countess of Salisbury.Dates:  August 14, 1473 – May 27, 1541Also known as: Margaret of York, Margaret Plantagenet, Margaret de la Pole, Countess of Salisbury, Margaret Pole the Blessed Margaret Pole Biography: Margaret Pole was born about four years after her parents had married, and was the first child born after the couple lost their first child on board a ship fleeing to France during the Wars of the Roses.   Her father, Duke of Clarence and brother to Edward IV, switched sides several times during that long family battle over the crown of England.   Her mother died after giving birth to a fourth child; that brother died ten days after their mother. When Margaret was only four years old, her father was killed in the Tower of London where he was imprisoned for rebelling again against his brother, Edward IV; rumor was that he was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine.   For a time, she and her younger brother were in the care of their maternal aunt, Anne Neville, who was married to their paternal uncle, Richard of Gloucester. Removed From the Succession A Bill of Attainder disinherited Margaret and her younger brother, Edward, and removed them from the line of succession.   Margaret’s uncle Richard of Gloucester became king in 1483 as Richard III, and reinforced young Margaret and Edward’s exclusion from the line of succession.   (Edward would have had a better right to the throne as son of Richard’s older brother.) Margaret’s aunt, Anne Neville, thus became queen. Henry VII and Tudor Rule Margaret was 12 years old when Henry VII defeated Richard III and claimed the crown of England by right of conquest.   Henry married Margaret’s cousin, Elizabeth of York, and imprisoned Margaret’s brother as a potential threat to his kingship. In 1487, an imposter, Lambert Simmel, pretended to be her brother Edward, and was used to try to gather a rebellion against Henry VII.   Edward was then brought out and displayed briefly to the public.   Henry VII also decided, about that time, to marry the 15-year-old Margaret to his half-cousin, Sir Richard Pole. Margaret and Richard Pole had five children, born between about 1492 and 1504: four sons and the youngest a daughter. In 1499, Margaret’s brother Edward apparently tried to escape from the Tower of London to take part in the plot of Perkin Warbeck who claimed to be their cousin, Richard, one of the sons of Edward IV who had been taken to the Tower of London under Richard III and whose fate was not clear.   (Margaret’s paternal aunt, Margaret of Burgundy, supported Perkin Warbeck’s conspiracy, hoping to restore the Yorkists to power.) Henry VII had Edward executed, leaving Margaret as the sole survivor of George of Clarence. Richard Pole was appointed to the household of Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII and Prince of Wales, heir apparent.   When Arthur married Catherine of Aragon, she became a lady-in-waiting to the princess.   When Arthur died in 1502, the Poles lost that position. Widowhood Margaret’s husband Richard died in 1504, leaving her with five young children and very little land or money. The king financed Richard’s funeral. To help with her financial situation, she gave one of her sons, Reginald, to the church.   He later characterized this as abandonment by his mother, and bitterly resented it for much of his life, although he became an important figure in the church. In 1509, when Henry VIII came to the throne after his father’s death, he married his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon. Margaret Pole was restored to a position as lady-in-waiting, which helped her financial situation. In 1512, Parliament, with Henry’s assent, restored to her some of the lands that had been held by Henry VII for her brother while he was imprisoned, and then had been confiscated when he was executed.   She also had restored to her the title to the Earldom of Salisbury. Margaret Pole was one of only two women in the 16th century to hold a peerage in her own right. She managed her lands quite well, and became one of the five or six wealthiest peers in England. When Catherine of Aragon gave birth to a daughter, Mary, Margaret Pole was asked to be one of the godmothers. She served later as a governess to Mary. Henry VIII helped provide good marriages or religious offices for Margaret’s sons, and a good marriage for her daughter as well.   When that daughter’s father-in-law was executed by Henry VIII, the Pole family fell out of favor briefly, but regained favor.   Reginald Pole supported Henry VIII in 1529 trying to win support among theologians in Paris for Henry’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Reginald Pole and Margarets Fate Reginald studied in Italy in 1521 through 1526, financed in part by Henry VIII, then returned and was offered by Henry the choice of several high offices in the church if he would support Henry’s divorce from Catherine. But Reginald Pole refused to do so, leaving for Europe in 1532.   In 1535, England’s ambassador began suggesting that Reginald Pole marry Henry’s daughter Mary. In 1536, Pole sent Henry a treatise which not only opposed Henry’s grounds for divorce – that he had married his brother’s wife and thus the marriage was invalid – but also opposing Henry’s more recent assertion of Royal Supremacy, power in the church in England above that of Rome. In 1537, after the split from the Roman Catholic Church proclaimed by Henry VIII, Pope Paul II created Reginald Pole – who, though he had studied theology extensively and served the church, had not been ordained a priest – Archbishop of Canterbury, and assigned Pole to organize efforts to replace Henry VIII with a Roman Catholic government.   Reginald’s brother Geoffrey was in correspondence with Reginald, and Henry had Geoffrey Pole, Margaret’s heir, arrested in 1538 along with their brother Henry Pole and others. They were charged with treason.   Henry and others were executed, though Geoffrey was not.   Both Henry and Reginald Pole were attainted in 1539; Geoffrey was pardoned. Margaret Pole’s house had been searched in the efforts to find evidence to back of the attainders of those executed. Six months later, Cromwell produced a tunic marked with the wounds of Christ, claiming it had been found in that search, and used that to arrest Margaret, though most doubt that. She was more likely arrested simply because of her maternal connection to Henry and Reginald, her sons, and perhaps the symbolism of her family heritage, the last of the Plantagenets. Margaret remained in the Tower of London for more than two years. During her time in prison, Cromwell himself was executed. In 1541, Margaret was executed, protesting that she had not taken part in any conspiracy and proclaiming her innocence. According to some stories, which are not accepted by many historians, she refused to lay her head on the block, and guards had to force her to kneel. The axe hit her shoulder instead of her neck, and she escaped the guards and ran around screaming as the executioner chased her with the axe. It took many blows to finally kill her – and this botched execution was itself remembered and, for some, considered a sign of martyrdom. Her son Reginald described himself afterwards as â€Å"son of a martyr† – and in 1886, Pope Leo XIII had Margaret Pole beatified as a martyr. After Henry VIII and then his son Edward VI had died, and Mary I was queen, with the intention to restore England to Roman authority, Reginald Pole was appointed papal legate to England by the Pope. In 1554, Mary reversed the attainder against Reginald Pole, and he was ordained as a priest in 1556 and finally consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1556. Background, Family: Mother: Isabel Neville  (September 5, 1451 - December 22, 1476)Father: George, Duke of Clarence, brother of king Edward IV and of Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III)Maternal grandparents: Anne de Beauchamp  (1426-1492?), wealthy heiress, and Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (1428-1471), known as the Kingmaker for his roles in the Wars of the RosesPaternal grandparents:  Cecily Neville  and Richard, Duke of York, heir to King Henry VI until Henry’s son was born, and regent for the king during his minority and during a later bout of insanityNote: Cecily Neville, Margaret’s paternal grandmother, was a paternal aunt of Margaret’s maternal grandfather, Richard Neville. Cecily’s parents and Richard’s grandparents were Ralph Neville and  Joan Beaufort; Joan was the daughter of John of Gaunt (a son of Edward III) and  Katherine Swynford.Siblings: 2 who died in infancy and a brother, Edward Plantagenet (February 25, 1475 - November 28 , 1499), never married, imprisoned in the Tower of London, impersonated by Lambert Simnel, executed under Henry VII Marriage, Children: Husband: Sir Richard Pole (married 1491-1494, perhaps on September 22, 1494; supporter of  Henry VII). He was a half-cousin of the first Tudor king, Henry VII; Richard Pole’s mother was a half-sister of  Margaret Beaufort, Henry VII’s mother.Children:Henry Pole, a peer at the trial of  Anne Boleyn; he was executed under Henry VIII (a descendant was among those who killed King Charles I)Reginald Pole, a cardinal and papal diplomat, last Roman Catholic Archbishop of CanterburyGeoffrey Pole, who went into exile in Europe when accused of conspiracy by Henry VIIIArthur PoleUrsula Pole, married Henry Stafford, whose title and lands were lost when his father was executed for treason and attainted, restored to a Stafford title under Edward VI. Books About Margaret Pole: Hazel Pierce. Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, 1473-1541: Loyalty, Lineage and Leadership. 2003.

Intrusion Detection System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intrusion Detection System - Assignment Example The HIDS and NIDS are protective mechanisms, in a computing system that detects and prevents efforts of accessing information from an-authorized parties. I agree with the notion that NIDS is widely based since the computer administrator can install it at various destinations all over the internal computer system. Â  I agree with the notion that HIDS is installed on a workstation or server. This is because the system is an agent of the secured host. Due to this, HIDS serves a particular host and can serve a particular purpose. Â  I agree with David’s answer that the methods of security testing are the white, black and gray box testing. However, I do not agree with the answer that the black box testing system involves knowing the architecture and design of the computer before the testing. Â  Black-box system does not entail any knowledge of architecture, or the interior workings of the computer system, while white box testing involves knowledge of the architecture and design of the computer system. Grey box system involves testing the computing system with limited knowledge of the system, and not as defined by David. Â  I agree with the notion that the person conducting black box testing is an end user. This is because the person doing the test cannot access the source code of the computing system. I also agree with the notion that a system designer conducts white box testing. Â  I agree with David’s notion that Vulnerability testing seeks to identify weaknesses in a computer system, and on his notions that vulnerability tests seek to identify the best places to attack a system. I agree with an answer concerning penetration testing, and its application. Â  

Employment law and relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Employment law and relations - Essay Example 5). Essentially discrimination occurs contrary to the provisions contained in the Equality Act 2010 when an individual receives ‘less favourable treatment’ on the basis of one or more protected characteristics (Wadham, et al., 2010, p. 32). Less favourable treatment refers to direct discrimination. Whereas indirect discrimination refers to outcomes where activities might on its face, be non-discriminatory, but nevertheless puts an individual with a protected characteristic at an unfair disadvantage. In addition to direct and indirect discrimination, harassment and victimization against individuals with a protected characteristic are also prohibited under the Equality Act 2010 (Sargeant, 2013, p. 51). The regulatory framework contained in the Equality Act 2010 provides different rules for establishing direct and indirect discrimination (Collins, 2010, p. 56). This paper critically analyses unlawful discrimination under the Equality Act 2010 in the organizational context and discusses its advantages and limitations. In particular, this paper will focus on the protected characteristics of disability, sexual orientation and religion and belief. The main question for consideration is how, and on what grounds is unlawful discrimination established in the organizational context. Discrimination on the grounds of disability is unique in that while equality contemplates equal treatment for those with protected, characteristics, the law ‘does not expect’ non-discriminatory treatment and consequences to arise out of treating persons with disabilities in exactly the same way as other individuals (Hepple, 2010, p. 17). As Hepple (2010) points out, the law recognizes that disabled persons have ‘special needs’ (p. 17). In this regard, a disabled person can expect special treatment which will not give rise to others claiming less favourable treatment in comparison to the special treatment conferred upon disabled persons in similar circumstances (Hepple,

Organizational error that caused the failure of the space shuttle Essay - 1

Organizational error that caused the failure of the space shuttle Challenger launch - Essay Example Vaughan argues that NASA managers did not break any rules unlike reported before rather abided by them a bit too strictly. She has pointed out that rather it were the rules that kept on getting more and more accommodative each time a mission was accomplished successfully. Thus rules expanded like a rubber band, enclosing more and more dangers which previously turned out to be false assumptions. It was NASA’s culture where something which has worked once was assumed to work every time. O-ring seals were not a new problem but the previous successful launches prepared the managers’ mind that it is an acceptable risk. She argues that rather than developing new paradigms for unexpected consequences, people change the paradigms to accommodate the consequence or discard them at all. According to her, the same happened in the case of O-ring erosion where the risk level was reduced as the risk did not turn out to be as grave as previously thought. However the reduction in gravit y did not mean that the risk cannot become grave once coupled with some other risks. The O-ring erosion, sub-optimal temperatures & unexpected wind shears, all risks were expected to be less than grave, in the original paradigms but people failed to develop new paradigm for the combination. She has agreed that Challenger’s Disaster was a normal accident (p. 415) & normal accident always happen because of failure to develop new paradigms in extremely complex organization.

Management in Information technology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Management in Information technology - Assignment Example Everyone from eager-to-fit-in tweens to educated business people to intrigued grandparents has joined the phenomenon, and unsurprisingly many teenagers have also caught Facebook fever.† (Facebook Addiction) The people in Saudi Arabia are very hard-working but they have been distracted by Facebook, their valuable time is being squandered browsing through Facebook. This is hampering their growth and this is also hampering the overall growth of the country. The younger generation is completely hooked on to Facebook and they use slang language which is again bad for them. Using slang language is affecting their language skills and making them incompetent. Facebook has had its share of problems; thieves use Facebook to know when certain people are going on vacation so that they can rob their house. Credit card numbers have been stolen using Facebook; a woman in Australia was murdered when she went and met her friend who she had met through Facebook. All these instances show that people in Saudi Arabia are losing their privacy and are openly flirting with danger. â€Å"Facebook and its co-founder Mark Zuckerberg are being sued for more than $1billion over a page that was on the social networking site that called for violence against Jews.† (Facebook Sued) This is just one of many evidences which clearly show that this social networking website can cause religious havoc and this is why the people in Saudi Arabia should never get carried away with what they see on this website. It has already caused political havoc in the middle-east which has led to several economical problems; it has also led to vandalism. The same may happen all over again and it is high time to stop this from happening. Saudi Arabia is a very conservative country; the majority of people residing in the country are Muslims. Islam is openly discussed on the website and people with very little or absolutely no knowledge about Islam have been spreading propaganda which could again

Habermas Political Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Habermas Political Philosophy - Essay Example The Habaermas discourse ethics theory attempts to elucidate the inference of communicative rationality in the light of moral basics and normative validation. This is an extremely intricate effort for theoretically formulating the fundamentals given by Kant’s deontological ethics particularly in terms of break-up of communicative structures. In other words it attempts to explain the universal nature as well as the obligatory nature of morality through inducing the universal obligation of communicative rationality. Habermas implies that the validity of the norms of morality is not justifiable in the mind of an individual and on his/her impression of the world. Rather the norm’s validity is totally dependent and possible when the process is subjected to argumentation among individuals; hence it is rather dialectic. In this manner the theory states that the â€Å"validity of a claim to normative rightness depends upon the mutual understanding achieved by individuals in an argument† (Habermas 1990). Habermas has from the above arguments deducted that the world’s moral principles are the result of validity claims through discursive justifications which have been imposed upon individuals by the presupposition of communication and argumentation. Some examples can be: The presupposition that there is no argument which is relevant that is excluded by the individuals involved in the discourse The presuppositions that that all the individuals that participate use the same manner of expression (linguistic and cultural) in the communicative exchange The presupposition that all the individuals who participate are truly motivated by a common concern for the best argument Besides the above, there are special and specific presuppositions that are unique to discourse: The presupposition that all the individuals should be agreeable on the universal validity of the claim in general The presupposition that each and every individual is fully capable to speak and act in a rational manner so as to make them eligible to participate; it also presupposes that all are equal to open new topics and introduce them into the discourse whether it is as an expression of attitude or desire or needs The presupposition that none of the validity claims are exempt from group's critical evaluation and argumentation in that regard In

Islam's Cultural Unity and Political Diversity Essay

Islam's Cultural Unity and Political Diversity - Essay Example Contrary to the verse’s context that only God, His angels and specific personalities on whom the knowledge of God’s divinity, power, and wisdom has been bestowed should be witnesses to this message, there have emerged communities of false teachers who mislead the faithful on the knowledge about God. One of the reasons for their false teachings could be lack of divine conviction to testify God’s words, in truth, and from revelations. The verse is also significant and relevant to our time that has many cults. The cults offer contrary teachings to the verse’s provisions and may mislead people and convert them to wrong faiths. Creating awareness of the verse will however strengthen people’s faith against the cult’s teachings. Contemporary problems that face people in trials and tribulations may also weaken a person’s faith and lead to doubts that God is not as powerful as He is thought to be. The verse, within this context, encourages peop le that God remains to be the only god, and he is still powerful regardless of what people experience in the contemporary world (Indstate 1). Indstate. â€Å"Twenty selected sets of verses from the Quran.† Indiana State University. N.d. Web. February 14, 2012.